The Vimalakīrti Sūtra

Conventionally, the general name for the Buddhist teachings presented in a scientific manner, as a fully elaborated transcendental psychology. As one of the branches of the Canon, it corresponds to the discipline of wisdom (the Sūtras corresponding to meditation, and the Vinaya to morality). Ultimately the Abhidharma is “pure wisdom, with its coordinate mental functions” (Prajñāmalā sānucārā), according to Vasubandhu.

Lit. “Intense Delight.” The universe, or buddhafield of the Tathāgata Akṣobhya, lying in the east beyond innumerable galaxies, whence Vimalakīrti came to reincarnate in our Sahā universe.

An important work written by Vasubandhu, probably in the fourth century, as a critical compendium of the Abhidharmic science.

This describes actual reality, as finally there is no enduring person himself or thing itself, since persons and things exist only in the relative, conventional, or superficial sense, and not in any ultimate or absolute sense. To understand Buddhist teaching correctly, we must be clear about the two senses (conventional/ultimate, or relative/absolute), since mistaking denial of ultimate self as denial of conventional self leads to nihilism, and mistaking affirmation of conventional self as affirmation of ultimate self leads to absolutism. Nihilism and absolutism effectively prevent us from realizing our enlightenment, hence are to be avoided.

“Absorption” has been translated as “meditation,” “contemplation,” “attainment,” etc., and any of these words might serve. The problem is to establish one English word for each of the important Sanskrit words samāpatti, dhyāna, samādhi, bhāvanā, etc., so as to preserve a consistency with the original. Therefore, I have adopted for these terms, respectively, “absorption,” “contemplation,” “concentration” and “realization” or “cultivation,” reserving the word “meditation” for general use with any of the terms when they are used not in a specific sense but to indicate mind-practice in general.

Desire, hatred and anger, dullness, pride, and jealousy, as well as all their derivatives, said to number 84,000. Also translated “passions.”

This translation of skandha is fairly well established, although some prefer the monosyllabic “group.” It is important to bear in mind that the original skandha has the sense of “pile,” or “heap,” which has the connotation of utter lack of internal structure, of a randomly collocated pile of things; thus “group” may convey a false connotation of structure and ordered arrangement. The five “compulsive” (upādāna) aggregates are of great importance as a schema for introspective meditation in the Abhidharma, wherein each is defined with the greatest subtlety and precision. In fact, the five terms rūpa, vedanā, samjñā, saṃskāra, and vijñāna have such a particular technical sense that many translators have preferred to leave them untranslated. Nevertheless, in the sūtra context, where the five are meant rather more simply to represent the relative living being (in the realm of desire), it seems preferable to give a translation‍—in spite of the drawbacks of each possible term‍—in order to convey the same sense of a total categorization of the psychophysical complex. Thus, for rūpa, “matter” is preferred to “form” because it more concretely connotes the physical and gross; for vedanā, “sensation” is adopted, as limited to the aesthetic; for samjñā, “intellect” is useful in conveying the sense of verbal, conceptual intelligence. For samskāra, which covers a number of mental functions as well as inanimate forces, “motivation” gives a general idea. And “consciousness” is so well established for vijñāna (although what we normally think of as consciousness is more like samjñā, i.e., conceptual and notional, and vijñāna is rather the “pure awareness” prior to concepts) as to be left unchallenged.

See “thirty-seven aids to enlightenment”

One of the six outsider teachers defeated by the Buddha at Śrāvastī.

The highest heaven of the form-world, where a buddha always receives the anointment of the ultimate wisdom, reaching there mentally from his seat of enlightenment under the Bodhi-tree.

A bodhisattva in the assembly at Vimalakīrti’s house, often figuring in other Mahāyāna sūtras, especially Akṣayamati­nirdeśa­sūtra.

Buddha of the universe Abhirati, presiding over the eastern direction; also prominent in tantric works as one of the five dhyāni buddhas, or tathāgatas (see Lamotte, pp. 360-362, n. 9).

The Buddha of boundless light; one of the five Tathāgatas in Tantrism; a visitor in Vimalakīrti’s house, according to the goddess’s report.

A courtesan of Vaiśālī who gave her garden to the Buddha and his retinue, where they stay during the events of the sūtra.

A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).

Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.

See also n.88 and n.193.

Lit. “infinite array of jewel-qualities.” A universe of Buddha Ratnavyūha, also mentioned in the Lalita­vistara­sūtra.

A śrāvaka disciple and cousin of the Buddha who was famed for his meditative prowess and superknowledges. See also n.78.

According to Buddhist tradition, one who has conquered his enemy passions (kleśa-ari-hata) and reached the supreme purity. The term can refer to buddhas as well as to those who have reached realization of the Disciple Vehicle.

One of the great masters of Indian Buddhism. The main disciple of Nāgārjuna, he lived in the early a.d. centuries and wrote numerous important works of Mādhyamika philosophy.

This great Indian philosopher lived in the fourth century and was the founder of the Vijñānavāda, or “Consciousness-Only,” school of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

Universe whence comes the Brahmā Śikhin.

Titan .

The thirty-two signs and the eighty marks of a superior being.

A bodhisattva emblematic of the great compassion; of great importance in Tibet as special protector of the religious life of the country and in China, in female form, as Kwanyin, protectress of women, children, and animals.

This vast Mahāyāna sūtra (also called the Buddhāvataṃsaka) deals with the miraculous side of the Mahāyāna. It is important in relation to the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa, since the latter’s fifth chapter, “The Inconceivable Liberation,” is a highly abbreviated version of the essential teaching of the former.

The three bad migrations are those of (1) denizens of hells, (2) inhabitants of the “limbo” of the pretaloka, where one wanders as an insatiably hungry and thirsty wretch, and (3) animals, who are trapped in the pattern of mutual devouring (Tib. gcig la gcig za).

These basic precepts are five in number for the laity: (1) not killing, (2) not stealing, (3) chastity, (4) not lying, and (5) avoiding intoxicants. For monks, there are three or five more; avoidance of such things as perfumes, makeup, ointments, garlands, high beds, and afternoon meals.

Lit. “King of Healers.” In the story of Śākyamuni’s former life in this sūtra, he is the tathāgata of the universe Mahāvyūha, during the eon called Vicaraṇa, who taught Prince Candracchattra about Dharma-worship. In later Buddhism, this buddha is believed to be the supernatural patron of healing and medicine.

(c. a.d. 400). A major Indian philosopher, a master of the Mādhyamika school of Buddhism, who founded a sub-school known as Svātantrika.

The term bhikṣu, often translated as “monk,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist monks and nuns‍—like other ascetics of the time‍—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity.

In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a monk follows 253 rules as part of his moral discipline. A nun (bhikṣuṇī; dge slong ma) follows 364 rules. A novice monk (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or nun (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma) follows thirty-six rules of moral discipline (although in other vinaya traditions novices typically follow only ten).

Lit. “three-thousand-great-thousand-world realm.” Each of these is composed of one thousand realms, each of which contains one thousand realms, each of which contains one thousand realms = one thousand to the third power = one billion worlds.

This refers to the ultimate nature of reality, to the fact that, ultimately, nothing has ever been produced or born nor will it ever be because birth and production can occur only on the relative, or superficial, level. Hence “birthlessness” is a synonym of “voidness,” “reality,” “absolute,” “ultimate,” “infinity,” etc.

A living being who has produced the spirit of enlightenment in himself and whose constant dedication, lifetime after lifetime, is to attain the unexcelled, perfect enlightenment of Buddhahood.

Also translated “ultimate body.”

Creator-lord of a universe, there being as many as there are universes, whose number is incalculable. Hence, in Buddhist belief, a title of a deity who has attained supremacy in a particular universe, rather than a personal name. For example, the Brahmā of the Aśoka universe is personally called Śikhin, to distinguish him from other Brahmās. A Brahmā resides at the summit of the realm of pure matter (rūpadhātu), and is thus higher in status than a Śakra.

Lit. “awakened one.” Title of one who has attained the highest attainment possible for a living being. “The Buddha” often designates Śākyamuni because he is the buddha mainly in charge of the buddhafield of our Sahā universe.

Ancient name for the town in Bihar province, where the Buddha attained his highest enlightenment under the Bodhi-tree. Modern name, Bodhgaya.

Roughly, a synonym for “universe,” although Buddhist cosmology contains many universes of different types and dimensions. “Buddhafield” indicates, in regard to whatever type of world-sphere, that it is the field of influence of a particular Buddha. For a detailed discussion of these concepts, see Lamotte, Appendice, Note I.

(c. fourth century). A great Mādhyamika master, who was later regarded as the founder of the Prāsaṅgika sub-school.

See Avataṃsaka.

A mountain in this sūtra and many others; but, in systematized Buddhist cosmology, the name of the ring of mountains that surrounds the world.

(1) Chief of the Licchavi. (2) Son of the king Ratnacchattra, mentioned in the former-life story told by the Buddha to Śakra in Chapter 12.

(c. sixth century). The most important Mādhyamika philosopher after Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva, he refined the philosophical methods of the school to such a degree that later members of the tradition considered him one of the highest authorities on the subject of the profound nature of reality.

The collection of the Vast (vaipulya) Sūtras of the Mahāyāna, supposed to have been collected supernaturally by a great assembly of bodhisattvas led by Maitreya, Mañjuśrī, and Vajrapāṇi. There is a Mahāyāna sūtra called Bodhisattvapiṭaka, but the word more usually refers to the whole collection (piṭaka) of Mahāyāna sūtras, to distinguish them from the Three Collections (Tripiṭaka) of the Hinayāna.

The third Noble Truth, equivalent to nirvāṇa.

Tibetan translator of this sūtra in the ninth century, also well known for his collaboration in compiling the Mahāvyutpatti (Skt.-Tib. dictionary).

Chinese word for dhyāna, which was adopted as the name of the school of Mahāyāna practice founded by Bodhidharma, and later to become famous in the west as Zen.

See “absorption.”

This can also be rendered by “initiation of…” because it means the mental event occurring when a living being, having been exposed to the teaching of the Buddha or of his magical emanations (e.g., Vimalakīrti), realizes simultaneously his own level of conditioned ignorance, i.e., that his habitual stream of consciousness is like sleep compared to that of one who has awakened from ignorance; the possibility of his own attainment of a higher state of consciousness; and the necessity of attaining it in order to liberate other living beings from their stupefaction. Having realized this possibility, he becomes inspired with the intense ambition to attain, and that is called the “conception of the spirit of enlightenment.” “Spirit” is preferred to “mind” because the mind of enlightenment should rather be the mind of the Buddha, and to “thought” because a “thought of enlightenment” can easily be produced without the initiation of any sort of new resolve or awareness. “Will” also serves very well here.

This brings up another important group of words that has never been treated systematically in translation: vikalpa, parikalpa, samāropa, adhyāropa, kalpanā, samjñā, and prapāñca. All of these refer to mental functions that tend to superimpose upon reality, either relative or ultimate, a conceptualized reality fabricated by the subjective mind. Some translators have tended to lump these together under the rubric “discursive thought,” which leads to the misleading notion that all thought is bad, something to be eliminated, and that sheer “thoughtlessness” is “enlightenment,” or whatever higher state is desired. According to Buddhist scholars, thought in itself is simply a function, and only thought that is attached to its own content over and above the relative object, i.e., “egoistic” thought, is bad and to be eliminated. Therefore we have chosen a set of words for the seven Skt. terms: respectively, “conceptualization,” “imagination,” “presumption,” “exaggeration,” “construction,” “conception” or “notion,” and “fabrication.” This does not mean that these words are not somewhat interchangeable or that another English word might not be better in certain contexts; it only represents an attempt to achieve consistency with the original usages.

This denotes a type of awareness of the most seemingly insignificant aspects of practical life, an awareness derived as a consequence of the highest realization of the ultimate nature of reality. As it is stated in the Anavatapta­nāga­rāja­paripṛcchā­sūtra (Toh 156), 1.191: “He who realizes voidness, that person is consciously aware.” “Ultimate realization,” far from obliterating the relative world, brings it into highly specific, albeit dreamlike, focus.

See “aggregate.”

See “absorption.”

The ancient cosmology maintained that the cosmos was encircled by an atmosphere of fierce winds of impenetrable intensity (see Lamotte, p. 255, n. 15).

Analytic concentration that gains insight into the nature of reality, synonymous with “transcendental analysis,” vipaśyana (q.v.).

This refers to the bodhisattva’s constant mindfulness of the fact that all his actions of whatever form contribute to his purpose of attaining enlightenment for the sake of himself and others, i.e., his conscious deferral of the merit accruing from any virtuous action as he eschews immediate reward in favor of ultimate enlightenment for himself and all living beings.

This refers to those teachings of the Buddha that are in terms of ultimate reality; it is opposed to those teachings given in terms of relative reality, termed “interpretable meaning,” because they require further interpretation before being relied on to indicate the ultimate. Hence definitive meaning relates to voidness, etc., and no statement concerning the relative world, even by the Buddha, can be taken as definitive. This is especially important in the context of the Mādhyamika doctrine, hence in the context of Vimalakīrti’s teachings, because he is constantly correcting the disciples and bodhisattvas who accept interpretable expressions of the Tathāgata as if they were definitive, thereby attaching themselves to them and adopting a one-sided approach.

See also “relativity.”

This generally describes one who has reached the noble path, either in Disciple Vehicle or Mahāyāna practice (see Lamotte, p. 115, n. 65).

This is the stage attained by followers of the Hinayāna wherein they become determined for the attainment of liberation (nirvāṇa, i.e., the ultimate for them) in such a way as never to regress from their goals, and by bodhisattvas when they attain the holy path of insight.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

The term dharma conveys ten different meanings, according to Vasubandhu’s Vyākhyā­yukti. The primary meanings are as follows: the doctrine taught by the Buddha (Dharma); the ultimate reality underlying and expressed through the Buddha’s teaching (Dharma); the trainings that the Buddha’s teaching stipulates (dharmas); the various awakened qualities or attainments acquired through practicing and realizing the Buddha’s teaching (dharmas); qualities or aspects more generally, i.e., phenomena or phenomenal attributes (dharmas); and mental objects (dharmas).

Certain teachings are called “Dharma-doors” (or “doors of the Dharma”), as they provide access to the practice of the Dharma.

One of the “five eyes,” representing superior insights of the buddhas and bodhisattvas. The five eyes consist of five different faculties of vision: the physical eye (māṃsa­cakṣu), the divine eye (dīvya­cakṣu), the wisdom eye (prajñā­cakṣu), the Dharma-eye (dharma­cakṣu), and the Buddha-eye (buddha­cakṣu).

A bodhisattva.

One of the six “superknowledges” (q.v.) as well as one of the “five eyes,” this is the supernormal ability to see to an unlimited distance, observe events on other worlds, see through mountains, etc. The five eyes consist of five different faculties of vision: the physical eye (māṃsa­cakṣu), the divine eye (dīvya­cakṣu), the wisdom eye (prajñā­cakṣu), the Dharma-eye (dharma­cakṣu), and the Buddha-eye (buddha­cakṣu).

Buddha of the universe Marīci, located sixty-one universes away; mentioned also in other Mahāyāna sūtras, with the interesting coincidence that his teaching ceased at the moment Śākyamuni began teaching at Benares.

This consists of twenty varieties of false notion, consisting basically of regarding the temporally impermanent and ultimately insubstantial as “I” or “mine.” The five compulsive aggregates are paired with the self, giving the twenty false notions. For example, the first four false notions are that (1) matter is the self, which is like its owner (rūpaṃ ātmā svāmivat); (2) the self possesses matter, like its ornament (rūpavañ ātmā alaņkāravat); (3) matter belongs to the self, like a slave (ātmīyaṃ rūpaṃ bhṛtyavat); and (4) the self dwells in matter as in a vessel (rūpe ātmā bhajanavat). The other four compulsive aggregates are paired with the self in the same four ways, giving sixteen more false notions concerning sensation, intellect, motivation, and consciousness, hypostatizing an impossible relationship with a nonexistent, permanent, substantial self.

The first consists of the seeing of form by one who has form; the second consists of the seeing of external form by one with the concept of internal formlessness; the third consists of the physical realization of pleasant liberation and its successful consolidation; the fourth consists of the full entrance to the infinity of space through transcending all conceptions of matter, and the subsequent decline of conceptions of resistance and discredit of conceptions of diversity; the fifth consists of full entrance into the infinity of consciousness, having transcended the infinity of space; the sixth consists of the full entrance into the sphere of nothingness, having transcended the sphere of the infinity of conscious­ness; the seventh consists of the full entrance into the sphere of neither conscious­ness nor un­conscious­ness, having transcended the sphere of nothingness; the eighth consists of the perfect cessation of suffering, having transcended the sphere of neither conscious­ness nor un­conscious­ness. Thus the first three liberations form specific links to the ordinary perceptual world; the fourth to seventh are equivalent to the four absorptions; and the eighth represents the highest attainment.

These consist of the exact opposites of the eight branches of the eightfold noble path (aṣṭāṅgikamārga).

These consist of the bodhisattva’s natural (uninstructed) possession of generosity, morality, tolerance, effort, meditation, and wisdom; of his uniting all beings with the four means of unification, knowing the method of dedication (of virtue to enlightenment), exemplification, through skill in liberative art, of the positive results of the Mahāyāna, as suited to the (various) modes of behavior of all living beings, his not falling from the Mahāyāna, showing the entrances of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa, skill in the technique of reconciliation of dichotomies, impeccable progress in all his lives, guided by wisdom without any conditioned activities, possession of ultimate action of body, speech, and mind directed by the tenfold path of good action, nonabandonment of any of the realms of living beings, through his assumption of a body endowed with tolerance of every conceivable suffering, manifestation of that which delights all living beings, inexhaustible preservation of the mind of omniscience, as stable as the virtue-constituted tree of wish-fulfilling gems, (even) in the midst of the infantile (ordinary persons) and (narrow-minded) religious disciples, however trying they might be, and adamant irreversibility from demonstrating the quest of the Dharma of the Buddha, for the sake of the attainment of the miraculous consecration conferring the skill in liberative art that transmutes all things. (Mvy, nos. 787-804)

Eighteen special features of a buddha’s behavior, realization, activity, and wisdom that are not shared by other beings. They are generally listed as: (1) he never makes a mistake, (2) he is never boisterous, (3) he never forgets, (4) his concentration never falters, (5) he has no notion of distinctness, (6) his equanimity is not due to lack of consideration, (7) his motivation never falters, (8) his endeavor never fails, (9) his mindfulness never falters, (10) he never abandons his concentration, (11) his insight (prajñā) never decreases, (12) his liberation never fails, (13) all his physical actions are preceded and followed by wisdom (jñāna), (14) all his verbal actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (15) all his mental actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (16) his wisdom and vision perceive the past without attachment or hindrance, (17) his wisdom and vision perceive the future without attachment or hindrance, and (18) his wisdom and vision perceive the present without attachment or hindrance.

These are right view (samyagdṛṣṭi), right consideration (samyak­saṃkalpa), right speech (samyakvāk), right terminal action (samyak­karmānta), right livelihood (samyagajiva), right effort (samyag­vyāyāma), right remembrance (samyak­smṛti), and right concentration (samyak­samādhi). They are variously defined in the different Buddhist schools. These eight form a part of the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment (see entry).

Depending on the context, may translate either: (a) Skt. mahābhūta, Tib. ’byung ba chen po, the four “main” or “great” outer elements of earth, water, fire, air, and (when there is a fifth) space; or: (b) Skt. dhātu, Tib. khams, the “eighteen elements” introduce, in the context of the aggregates, elements, and sense-media, the same six pairs as the twelve sense-media, as elements of experience, adding a third member to each set: the element of consciousness (vijñāna), or sense. Hence the first pair gives the triad eye-element (caksur­dhātu), form-element (rūpadhātu), and eye-consciousness-element, or eye-sense-element (caksur­vijñāna­dhātu)‍—and so on with the other five, noting the last, mind-element (manodhātu), phenomena-element (dharma­dhātu), and mental-sense-element (mano­vijñāna­dhātu).

This refers to the miraculous power of the Buddha and bodhisattvas of a certain stage to emanate apparently living beings in order to develop and teach living beings. This power reaches its culmination in the nirmāṇa­kayā, the “incarnation body,” which is one of the three bodies of buddhahood and includes all physical forms of all buddhas, including Śākyamuni, whose sole function as incarnations is the development and liberation of living beings.

This Skt. term is usually translated by “voidness” because that English word is more rarely used in other contexts than “emptiness” and does not refer to any sort of ultimate nothingness, as a thing-in-itself, or even as the thing-in-itself to end all things-in-themselves. It is a pure negation of the ultimate existence of anything or, in Buddhist terminology, the “emptiness with respect to personal and phenomenal selves,” or “with respect to identity,” or “with respect to intrinsic nature,” or “with respect to essential substance,” or “with respect to self-existence established by intrinsic identity,” or “with respect to ultimate truth-status,” etc. Thus emptiness is a concept descriptive of the ultimate reality through its pure negation of whatever may be supposed to be ultimately real. It is an absence, hence not existent in itself. It is synonymous therefore with “infinity,” “absolute,” etc.‍—themselves all negative terms, i.e., formed etymologically from a positive concept by adding a negative prefix (in + finite = not finite; ab + solute = not compounded, etc.). But, since our verbally conditioned mental functions are habituated to the connection of word and thing, we tend to hypostatize a “void,” analogous to “outer space,” a “vacuum,” etc., which we either shrink from as a nihilistic nothingness or become attached to as a liberative nothingness; this great mistake can be cured only by realizing the meaning of the “emptiness of emptiness,” which brings us to the tolerance of inconceivability.

This word requires too much explanation for this glossary because, indeed, the whole sūtra‍—and the whole of Buddhist literature‍—is explanatory of only this. Here we simply mention the translation equivalent.

Lit. “family” or “lineage of the Buddha.” One becomes a member on the first bodhisattva stage. In another sense, all living beings belong to this exalted family because all have the capacity to wake up to enlightenment, conceiving its spirit within themselves and thenceforward seeking its realization (see Chapter 7).

This term arises from a classification of beings into different groups (lineages) according to their destinies: disciple lineage, solitary buddha lineage, buddha lineage, etc. The Mādhyamika school, and the sūtras that are its foundation, maintains that all living beings belong to the buddha lineage, that Disciple Vehicle nirvāṇa is not a final destiny, and that arhats must eventually enter the Mahāyāna path. Mañjuśrī carries this idea to the extreme, finding the tathāgata lineage everywhere, in all mundane things. See 7.9, and Lamotte, Appendice, Note VII.

The Buddha has four fearlessnesses, as do the bodhisattvas. The four fearlessnesses of the Buddha are: fearlessness regarding the realization of all things; fearlessness regarding knowledge of the exhaustion of all impurities; fearlessness of foresight through ascertainment of the persistence of obstructions; and fearlessness in the rightness of the path leading to the attainment of the supreme success. The fearlessnesses of the bodhisattva are: fearlessness in teaching the meaning he has understood from what he has learned and practiced; fearlessness resulting from the successful maintenance of purity in physical, verbal, and mental action‍—without relying on others’ kindness, being naturally flawless through his understanding of the absence of self; fearlessness resulting from freedom from obstruction in virtue, in teaching, and in delivering living beings, through the perfection of wisdom and liberative art and through not forgetting and constantly upholding the teachings; and fearlessness in the ambition to attain full mastery of omniscience‍—without any deterioration or deviation to other practices‍—and to accomplish all the aims of all living beings.

Female attendants who normally assisted the wife of a wealthy householder.

Lit. “sins of immediate retribution [after death].” These five, all of which cause immediate rebirth in hell, are killing one’s father, killing one’s mother, killing an arhat, breaking up the saṅgha, and causing, with evil intent, the Tathāgata to bleed.

Visibles, sound, scent, taste, and tangibles.

Five impediments to meditation (bsam gtan, dhyāna): sensory desire (’dod pa la ’dun pa, kāmacchanda), ill will (gnod sems, vyāpāda), drowsiness and torpor (rmugs pa dang gnyid, styānamiddha), agitation and regret (rgod pa dang ’gyod pa, auddhatya­kaukṛtya), and doubt (the tshom, vicikitsā).

These are the same as the five spiritual faculties, at a further stage of development.

These are called “faculties” (indriya) by analogy, as they are considered as capacities to be developed: the spiritual faculties for faith (śraddhā), effort (vīrya), mindfulness (smṛti), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (prajña). These are included in the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment.

The first basis of magical power consists of the energy from the conscious cultivation of concentration of will (chanda­samādhi­prahāṇa­saṃskāra­samanvāgataḥ). The second consists of the energy from the conscious cultivation of concentration of mind (citta‑). The third consists of concentration of effort (vīrya‑). The fourth consists of concentration of analysis (mīmāṃsa‑). These four form a part of the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment.

The four are as follows: All compounded things are impermanent (anityāḥ sarva­saṃskārāḥ). All defiled things are suffering (duḥkhāh sarva­sāsravāḥ). All things are without self (anātmanāḥ sarva­dharmāḥ). Nirvāṇa is peace (śāntaṃ nirvāṇaṃ). Also called “the four insignia of the Dharma.”

These are the stationing, or focusing, of mindfulness on the body, sensations, the mind, and things. These four form a part of the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment.

Immeasurable states, otherwise known as “pure abodes” (brahmā­vihāra). Immeasurable love arises from the wish for all living beings to have happiness and the cause of happiness. Immeasurable compassion arises from the wish for all living beings to be free from suffering and its cause. Immeasurable joy arises from the wish that living beings not be sundered from the supreme happiness of liberation. And immeasurable impartiality arises from the wish that the preceding‍—love, compassion, and joy‍—should apply equally to all living beings, without attachment to friend or hatred for enemy.

These consist of mistaking what is impermanent for permanent; mistaking what is without self for self-possessing; mistaking what is impure for pure; and mistaking what is miserable for happy.

To attain higher realizations and final enlightenment, the bodhisattva should rely on the meaning (of the teaching) and not on the expression (artha­pratisāraṇena bhavitavyaṃ na vyañjana­pratisāraṇena); on the teaching and not on the person (who teaches it) (dharma­pratisāraṇena bhavitavyaṃ na pudgala­pratisāraṇena); on gnosis and not on normal consciousness (jñāna­pratisāraṇena bhavitavyaṃ na vijñāna­pratisāraṇena); and on discourses of definitive meaning and not on discourses of interpretable meaning (nītārtha­sūtra­pratisāraṇena bhavitavyaṃ na neyārtha­sūtra­pratisāraṇena) according to the order in this sūtra. The usual order, “teaching-reliance,” “meaning-reliance,” definitive-meaning-discourse-reliance,” and “gnosis-reliance,” seems to conform better to stages of practice.

These are effort not to initiate sins not yet arisen; effort to eliminate sins already arisen; effort to initiate virtues not yet arisen; and effort to consolidate, increase, and not deteriorate virtues already arisen. For our use of “effort” (samyak­pradhāna) instead of lit. “abandonment” (samyak­prahāna) see Dayal, p. 102 ff. These four form a part of the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment.

A mountain known for its incense trees.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

Deities who attend on the Buddha Sugandhakūta in the universe Sarva­gandha­sugandhā.

Buddha of the universe Sarva­gandha­sugandhā, from whom Vimalakīrti’s emanation-bodhisattva obtains the vessel of ambrosial food that magically feeds the entire assembly without diminishing in the slightest.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

This is knowledge of the nonconceptual and transcendental which is realized by those attaining higher stages.

The “supernatural power” with which the buddhas sustain the bodhisattvas in their great efforts on behalf of living beings.

This refers to one of the two central qualities of buddhas or high bodhisattvas: their feeling born of the wish for all living beings to be free of suffering and to attain the supreme happiness. It is important to note that this great compassion has nothing to do with any sentimental emotion such as that stimulated by such a reflection as “Oh, the poor creatures! How they are suffering!” On the contrary, great compassion is accompanied by the clear awareness that ultimately there are no such things as living beings, suffering, etc., in reality. Thus it is a sensitivity that does not entertain any dualistic notion of subject and object; indeed, such an unlimited sensitivity might best be termed “empathy.”

In an effort to maintain distinctions between Buddhism and Christianity, translators have used all sorts of euphemisms for this basic term. Granted, it is not the everyday “love” that means “to like”; it is still the altruistic love that is the finest inspiration of Christ’s teaching, as well as of the Mahāyāna.

This translation follows the Tib. (lit. “great mind- hero”), whose translation from Skt. derives from the lo tsā ba’s analysis of sattva as meaning “hero,” rather than simply “being.”

This is a stage in the conception or initiation of the spirit‌ of enlightenment‌. It follows upon the positive thought, or aspiration to attain it, wherein the bodhisattva becomes filled with a lofty determination that he himself should attain enlightenment, that it is the only thing to do to solve his own problems as well as those of all living beings. This high resolve reaches its most intense purity when the bodhisattva simultaneously attains the Path of Insight and the first bodhisattva-stage, the Stage of Joy. The translation follows Lamotte’s happy coinage “haute résolution.”

The deities of this, the sixth level of the gods of the desire-realm, appropriate and enjoy the magical creations of others; hence their name, literally, “who assume control of the emanations of others.” Their abode contains all the wonders created elsewhere and is referred to as a standard of splendor.

A mountain.

Svabhāva is usually rendered as “self-nature,” sometimes as “own-being,” both of which have a certain literal validity. However, neither artificial term has any evocative power for the reader who has no familiarity with the original, and a term must be found that the reader can immediately relate to his own world to fulfill the function the original word had in its world. In our world of identities (national, racial, religious, personal, sexual, etc.), “identity” is a part of our makeup; thus, when we are taught the ultimate absence of identity of all persons and things, it is easy to “identify” what is supposedly absent and hence to try to understand what that entails.

The highest and subtlest of the three realms of saṃsāra in Buddhist cosmology. Here beings are no longer bound by materiality and enjoy a purely mental state of absorption. It is divided in four levels according to each of the four formless concentrations (ārūpyāvacaradhyāna), namely, the Sphere of Infinite Space (ākāśānantyāyatana), the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness (vijñānānantyāyatana), the Sphere of Nothingness (a­kiñ­canyāyatana), and the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-perception (naiva­saṃjñā­nāsaṃjñāyatana). The formless realm is located above the other two realms of saṃsāra, the form realm (rūpadhātu) and the desire realm (kāmadhātu).

The incantations, or spells, are mnemonic formulas, possessed by advanced bodhisattvas, that contain a quintessence of their attainments, not simply magical charms‍—although the latter are included. The same term in Sanskrit and Tibetan also refers to a highly developed power present in bodhisattvas that is a process of memory and recall of detailed teachings, best translated “retention” in certain contexts.

See “emanated incarnation.”

This refers to the ultimate nature of things, which cannot be comprehended, grasped, etc., by the ordinary, conditioned, subjective mind. Hence it is significant that the realization of this nature is not couched in terms of understanding, or conviction, but in terms of tolerance (kṣānti), as the grasping mind cannot grasp its ultimate inability to grasp; it can only cultivate its tolerance of that inability.

Lit. “unthinkability,” (on the part of a mind whose thinking is conditioned and bound by conceptual terms). This is essentially synonymous with “incomprehensibility” (see entry).

Inconceivable liberation of the bodhisattvas, a name of the Avataṃsaka, and a subtitle of the Vimala­kīrti­nirdeśa.

See “Disciple Vehicle.”

A major god in the Vedic pantheon, he dwindled in importance after Vedism was transformed into Hinduism in the early A.D. centuries. However, he was reinstated in Buddhist sūtras as the king of the gods and as a disciple of the Buddha and protector of the Dharma and its practicers.

The subconscious tendencies and predilections of the psychosomatic conglomerate. This most obvious word is seldom used in this context because of the hesitancy of scholars to employ “scientific” terminology.

See “aggregate.”

See “definitive meaning.”

The fact that the Dharma is not a single dogma, law, or fixed system, but instead an adaptable body of techniques available for any living being to aid in his development and liberation is emphasized by this metaphor. This wheel is said to turn by the current of energy from the needs and wishes of living beings, and its turning automatically converts negative energies (e.g., desire, hatred, and ignorance) to positive ones (e.g., detachment, love, and wisdom).

A bodhisattva layman of Vaiśālī, who is saved by Vimalakīrti from being fooled by Māra posing as Indra. This bodhisattva is mentioned in Mvy, No. 728, and in the Rāṣṭra­pāla­paripṛccha (Toh 62, in the Ratnakūṭa; see Lamotte, p. 204, n. 120 and Vienna Buddhist Studies Translation Group, trans., The Questions of Rāṣṭrapāla, 1.1).

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

One of the six outsider teachers.

A mountain.

Meaning “action” in its most basic sense, karma is an important concept in Buddhist philosophy as the cumulative force of previous physical, verbal, and mental acts, which determines present experience and will determine future existences.

(also Mahākātyāyana). Disciple of the Buddha noted for his skill in analysis of the Buddha’s discourses and, traditionally, the founder of the Abhidharma. See also n.74.

Another name for Indra. Kauśika, Śakra, and Indra all refer to the same god, centrally prominent in the Vedas, who in Buddhist cosmogony is regarded as the king of gods in the realm of desire.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

The first Buddha of the “Good Eon” (bhadrakalpa) of one thousand buddhas, our own Śākyamuni having been the fourth, and Maitreya expected to come as the fifth. Also spelled Krakutsanda, Kukutsunda, Kukucchanda.

Translator of this sūtra into Chinese (344-409).

Householders with definite vows that set them off from the ordinary householder.

Householders with definite vows that set them off from the ordinary householder.

In Sanskrit, the term nirvāṇa literally means “extinguishment” and the Tibetan mya ngan las ’das pa literally means “gone beyond sorrow.” As a general term, it refers to the cessation of all suffering, afflicted mental states (kleśa), and causal processes (karman) that lead to rebirth and suffering in cyclic existence, as well as to the state in which all such rebirth and suffering has permanently ceased.

More specifically, three main types of nirvāṇa are identified. (1) The first type of nirvāṇa, called nirvāṇa with remainder (sopadhiśeṣanirvāṇa), is the state in which arhats or buddhas have attained awakening but are still dependent on the conditioned aggregates until their lifespan is exhausted. (2) At the end of life, given that there are no more causes for rebirth, these aggregates cease and no new aggregates arise. What occurs then is called nirvāṇa without remainder ( anupadhiśeṣanirvāṇa), which refers to the unconditioned element (dhātu) of nirvāṇa in which there is no remainder of the aggregates. (3) The Mahāyāna teachings distinguish the final nirvāṇa of buddhas from that of arhats, the nirvāṇa of arhats not being considered ultimate. The buddhas attain what is called nonabiding nirvāṇa (apratiṣṭhitanirvāṇa), which transcends the extremes of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa, i.e., existence and peace. This is the nirvāṇa that is the goal of the Mahāyāna path.

This is the expression in action of the great compassion of the Buddha and the bodhisattvas‍—physical, verbal, and mental. It follows that one empathetically aware of the troubles of living beings would, for his very survival, devise the most potent and efficacious techniques possible to remove those troubles, and the troubles of living beings are removed effectively only when they reach liberation. “Art” was chosen over the usual “method” and “means” because it has a stronger connotation of efficacy in our technological world; also, in Buddhism, liberative art is identified with the extreme of power, energy, and efficacy, as symbolized in the vajra (adamantine scepter): The importance of this term is highlighted in this sūtra by the fact that Vimalakīrti himself is introduced in the chapter entitled “Inconceivable Skill in Liberative Art”; this indicates that he, as a function of the nirmāṇakāya (incarnation-body), just like the Buddha himself, is the very incarnation of liberative art, and every act of his life is therefore a technique for the development and liberation of living beings. The “liberative” part of the translation follows “salvifique” in Lamotte’s phrase “moyens salvifique.”

Name of the tribe and republican city-state whose capital was Vaiśālī, where Vimalakīrti lived, and the main events of this sūtra take place.

A state of involuntary existence conditioned by afflicted mental states and the imprint of past actions, characterized by suffering in a cycle of life, death, and rebirth. On its reversal, the contrasting state of nirvāṇa is attained, free from suffering and the processes of rebirth.

Lit. “World-Protectors.” They are the same as the four Mahārājas, the great kings of the quarters (rgyal chen bzhi), namely, Vaiśravaṇa, Dhṛtarāṣṭra, Virūḍhaka, and Virūpākṣa, whose mission is to report on the activities of mankind to the gods of the Trāyastriṃśa heaven and who have pledged to protect the practitioners of the Dharma. Each universe has its own set of four.

“Lord” is chosen to translate the title Bhagavān because it is the term of greatest respect current in our “sacred” language, as established for the Deity in the Elizabethan version of the Bible. Indeed, the Skt. Bhagavān was given as a title to the Buddha, although it also served the non-Buddhist Indians of the day and, subsequently, it served as an honorific title of their particular deities. As the Buddha is clearly described in the sūtras as the “Supreme Teacher of Gods and Men,” there seems little danger that he may be confused with any particular deity through the use of this term [as indeed in Buddhist sūtras various deities, creators, protectors, etc., are shown in their respective roles]. Thus I feel it would compromise the weight and function of the original Bhagavān to use any less weighty term than “Lord” for the Buddha.

Teaching of the Middle Way.

School based on Madhyamaka, and followers of that school.

The “Analysis of the Middle and the Extremes,” it is an important work of Vijñānavāda philosophy, said to have been received as a revelation from the future Buddha Maitreya by the great scholar and saint, Āryāsaṅga, after twelve years of meditation.

A mountain, or sometimes a range of mountains.

Foremost disciple of the Buddha; he inherited the leadership of the saṅgha after the Parinirvāṇa. See also n.62.

A mountain.

A “Great Sorcerer,” a master of the esoteric teachings and practices of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

The name of one of the bodhisattvas in the assembly in Chap. 1.

The name of the universe in the distant past where the Buddha Bhaiṣajyarāja presided, and taught the prince Chandracchattra about the Dharma-worship (in the Epilogue).

The “Great Vehicle” of Buddhism, called “great” because it carries all living beings to enlightenment of Buddhahood. It is distinguished from the Hinayāna, including the Śrāvāka­yāna (Śrāvaka Vehicle) and Pratyeka­buddha­yāna (Solitary Sage Vehicle), which only carries each person who rides on it to their own personal liberation.

One of the chief śrāvakas, paired with Śāriputra.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

A bodhisattva present throughout the sūtra, prophesied as one birth away from buddhahood and designated by Śākyamuni as the next buddha in the succession of one thousand buddhas of our era. According to tradition, he resides in the Tuṣita heaven preparing for his descent to earth at the appropriate time which, according to Buddhist belief, will occur in 4456 A.D.

A mystic diagram, usually consisting of a square within a circle, used to define a sacred space in the context of esoteric rituals of initiation and consecration preliminary to certain advanced meditational practices.

The eternally youthful crown prince (kumārabhūta), so called because of his special identification with the Prajñā­pāramitā, or Transcendence of Wisdom. He is the only member of the Buddha’s retinue who volunteers to visit Vimalakīrti, and he serves as Vimalakīrti’s principal interlocutor throughout the sūtra. Traditionally regarded as the wisest of bodhisattvas, in Tibetan tradition he is known as rgyal ba’i yab gcig, the “sole father of buddhas,” as he inspires them in their realization of the profound. He is represented as bearing the sword of wisdom in his right hand and a volume of the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtra in his left. He is always youthful in appearance, like a boy of sixteen.

The devil, or evil one, who leads the forces of the gods of the desire-world in seeking to tempt and seduce the Buddha and his disciples. But according to Vimalakīrti he is actually a bodhisattva who dwells in the inconceivable liberation and displays evil activities in order to strengthen and consolidate the high resolve of all bodhisattvas.

Universe of the Buddha Duṣprasāhā.

One of the six outsider teachers.

The sense, which ordinarily binds us, of the “objective” solidity and physical reality of things.

Object of egoistic or materialist interest (satkāyadṛṣṭi). See “egoistic views.”

See “aggregate.”

Four ways in which a bodhisattva forms a group of people united by the common aim of practicing the Dharma: giving (dāna); pleasant speech (priyavaditā); accomplishment of the aims (of others) by teaching Dharma (arthacaryā); and consistency of behavior with the teaching (samānārthatā).

See “conceptualization.”

“Mental quiescence” is a general term for all types of mind-practice, meditation, contemplation, concentration, etc., that cultivate one-pointedness of mind and lead to a state of peacefulness and freedom from concern with any sort of object. It is paired with “transcendental analysis” or “insight,” which combines the analytic faculty with this one-pointedness to reach high realizations such as the absence of self (see “transcendental analysis”). “Mental quiescence” and “transcendental analysis” were coined by E. Obermiller in his invaluable study “Prajṅa Pāramitā Doctrine, as Exposed in the Abhisamayālaṃkāra of Maitreya” (Acta Orientalia, Vol. XI [Heidelberg, 1932], pp. 1-134).

Buddhafield beyond buddhafields as numerous as the sands of thirty-six Ganges rivers, administered by the Buddha Meru­pradīpa­rāja, whence Vimalakīrti obtains the lion-thrones on which he seats his visitors.

Buddha of the universe Merudhvaja.

Morally virtuous or disciplined conduct and the abandonment of morally undisciplined conduct of body, speech, and mind. In a general sense, moral discipline is the cause for rebirth in higher, more favorable states, but it is also foundational to Buddhist practice as one of the three trainings (triśikṣā) and one of the six perfections of a bodhisattva. Often rendered as “ethics,” “discipline,” and “morality.”

See “aggregate.”

A mountain.

One of the lords of the ocean, appearing as a great, many headed, sea dragon.

Saint, scholar, and mystic of Buddhist India from about four hundred years after the Buddha; discoverer of the Mahāyāna sūtras and author of the fundamental Madhyamaka treatise.

In Indian lore, incarnation of Viṣṇu, whose strength was legendary (see Abhi­dharma­kośa VII, pp. 72-74).

This term refers to the restricted, biased, narrow-minded attitudes and practices of the Disciple Vehicle, which itself is called Skt. prādeśikāyāna (“limited, or narrow-minded, vehicle”) (Mvy, 1254). It is narrow-minded because it posits the reality of the elements of existence as apparently perceived and because it aspires only to personal liberation, not to the exaltation of buddhahood.

I.e. the teachings of the Disciple Vehicle (śrāvakayāna). See “narrow-minded attitudes.”

These consist of various mental distractions caused by the nine considerations “He has caused, causes, will cause wrong to me. He has caused, causes, will cause wrong to one dear to me. He has served, serves, will serve my enemies.”

One of the six outsider teachers.

‍—

A practitioner of the Disciple Vehicle teaching who has reached at least the initial stages of realization.

This is synonymous with reality, voidness, etc. But it must be remembered that nonduality does not necessarily mean unity, that unity is only one of the pair unity-duality; hence nonduality implies nonunity as well. This point is obscured by designating this nondual philosophy as “monism,” as too many modern scholars have done.

This refers to the gnosis of the Buddha, with which there is nothing he does not know. However, not to confuse “omniscience” with the theistic conception of an omniscient god, the “everything” here is specifically everything about the source of the predicament of worldly life and the way of transcendence of that world through liberation. Since “everything” is only an abstract term without any particular referent, once we are clear about the implications of infinity, it does not refer to any sort of ultimate totality, since a totality can only be relative, i.e., a totality within a particular frame of reference. Thus, as Dharmakīrti has remarked, “it is not a question of the Buddha’s knowing the number of fish in the ocean,” i.e., since there are infinity of fish in infinity of oceans in infinity of worlds and universes. The Buddha’s omniscience, rather, knows how to develop and liberate any fish in any ocean, as well as all other living beings.

Those of other religious or philosophical orders, contemporary with the early Buddhist order, including Jains, Jaṭilas, Ājīvikas, and Cārvākas. Tīrthika (“forder”) literally translates as “one belonging to or associated with (possessive suffix –ika) stairs for landing or for descent into a river,” or “a bathing place,” or “a place of pilgrimage on the banks of sacred streams” (Monier-Williams). The term may have originally referred to temple priests at river crossings or fords where travelers propitiated a deity before crossing. The Sanskrit term seems to have undergone metonymic transfer in referring to those able to ford the turbulent river of saṃsāra (as in the Jain tīrthaṅkaras, “ford makers”), and it came to be used in Buddhist sources to refer to teachers of rival religious traditions. The Sanskrit term is closely rendered by the Tibetan mu stegs pa: “those on the steps (stegs pa) at the edge (mu).”

The canonical language of Ceylonese Buddhists, believed to be very similar to the colloquial language spoken by Śākyamuni Buddha.

A more emphatic term for nirvāṇa, when it is used in reference to the apparent passing away of a physical body of a buddha.

In general, a joyous attitude to help living beings and accomplish virtue. This is also the first stirring in the bodhisattva’s mind of the inspiration to attain enlightenment (see “high resolve”). See Lamotte, Appendice, Note II.

One of the nonmental motivations, defined as the force of life-duration, being a concept of the Abhidharma. See T. Stcherbatski, Central Conception of Buddhism (London, 1923), p. 105.

A bodhisattva present in the opening assembly, who later tells the story of his encounter with Vimalakīrti, who discourses to him about the seat of enlightenment.

One of the buddhas who assembled at Vimalakīrti’s house to teach esoteric practices, according to the goddess (Chap. 7).

Transcendental wisdom, being the profound nondual understanding of the ultimate reality, or voidness, or relativity, of all things; personified as a goddess, she is worshiped as the “Mother of all Buddhas” (Sarva­jina­mātā).

The sūtra in which the transcendental wisdom is taught. There are nineteen versions of different lengths, ranging from the Heart Sūtra of a few pages to the Hundred-Thousand. A great deal of information about these sūtras can be found in the works of Dr. Edward Conze.

A commentary on the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtras, composed by Kumārajīva from oral traditions derived from Nāgārjuna, and partially translated from Chinese into French by Dr. Etienne Lamotte, as Traité de la Grande Vertu de la Sagesse, Louvain, 1944-1949 (Bibliotheque du Museon, 18).

The sub-school of the Mādhyamika philosophical school founded by Buddha-Pālita and further developed by Candrakīrti.

Candrakīrti’s major commentary on Nāgārjuna’s Fundamental Stanzas on Wisdom.

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

One of the six outsider teachers.

Śrāvaka disciple of the Buddha noted for his ability as a preacher of the Hinayāna teaching, especially skillful in the conversion and training of young monks; also known as Pūrṇa­maitrāyaṇī­putra. See also n.72.

See Pūrṇa.

Śākyamuni Buddha’s own son, who became a distinguished disciple. See also n.83.

One of the buddhas who assembled at Vimalakīrti’s house to teach the Tathāgata­guhyaka, according to the goddess.

Wheel-turning king said by the Buddha to be a former incarnation of the Buddha Ratnārcis.

Wealthy young Licchavi noble who leads the delegation that brings the precious parasols to the Buddha.

A mountain.

One of the buddhas who appear in the house of Vimalakīrti on esoteric occasions. According to the Prajñā­pāramitā, he is the Buddha of the universe Upaśānta, in the western direction (see Lamotte, p. 384, n. 27).

One of the buddhas who appear in the house of Vimalakīrti on esoteric occasions; the Sanskrit name, but with a different rendering in Tibetan, also refers to a bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva; the Sanskrit name, but with a different rendering in Tibetan, also refers to a tathāgata.

Lit. “Jewel-Array.” Name of one of the bodhisattvas in the original assembly (rendered in Tibetan as rin chen bkod pa); also the name (with several renderings in Tibetan) of a buddha who presides in the universe called Ananta­guṇa­ratna­vyūha, yet who comes to Vimalakīrti’s house at the latter’s supplication, to participate in the esoteric teachings. He can be identified with the Tathāgata Ratnasaṃbhava, one of the five major buddhas of the Guhya­samāja­tantra.

A synonym of the ultimate reality. In the Mahāyāna sūtras, it has a somewhat negative flavor, connoting the Hinayāna concept of a static nirvāṇa. Sthiramati glosses the term as follows: “ ‘Reality’ means undistorted truth. ‘Limit’ means the extreme beyond which there is nothing to be known by anyone” (bhūtaṃ satyam aviparītamityarthaḥ / koṭiḥ paryanto yataḥ pareṇa-anyajjñeyaṃ nāsti…/).

In Buddhist cosmology, this is our own realm, the lowest and most coarse of the three realms of saṃsāra. It is called this because beings here are characterized by their strong longing for and attachment to the pleasures of the senses. The desire realm includes hell beings, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, asuras, and the lowest six heavens of the gods‍—from the Heaven of the Four Great Kings (cāturmahā­rājika) up to the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations (para­nirmita­vaśa­vartin). Located above the desire realm is the form realm (rūpadhātu) and the formless realm (ārūpyadhātu).

One of the three realms of saṃsāra in Buddhist cosmology, it is characterized by subtle materiality. Here beings, though subtly embodied, are not driven primarily by the urge for sense gratification. It consists of seventeen heavens structured according to the four concentrations of the form realm (rūpāvacaradhyāna), the highest five of which are collectively called “pure abodes” (śuddhāvāsa). The form realm is located above the desire realm (kāmadhātu) and below the formless realm (ārūpya­dhātu).

The twelfth of the eighteen special qualities of a bodhisattva.

Mentioned by the Buddha as the last of the thousand buddhas of this eon.

The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings.

The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

In Buddhist texts, usual name for Indra, king of gods of the desire-realm (kāmadhātu) of a particular universe; hence a Śakra is lower in status than a Brahmā, who resides at the summit of the realm of pure matter (rūpadhātu). As in the case of Brahmā, a title, or status, rather than a personal name; each universe has its Śakra.

Name of the tribe dwelling in Northern India in which Gautama, or Śākyamuni, Buddha was born as prince Siddhārtha.

The “Sage of the Śākyas,” name of the Buddha of our era, who lived c. 563-483 B.C.

The “Sūtra of the Revelation of the Inner Intention,” it was the most important Mahāyāna sūtra for Āryāsaṅga and the Vijñānavāda school.

One of the six outsider teachers.

King of the gods of the Tuṣita heaven.

Lit. “perfectly accomplished Buddha.” Name of the Buddha.

The third of the Three Jewels (Triratna) of Buddhism, the Buddha, the Teaching, and the Community. Sometimes narrowly defined as the community of mendicants, it can be understood as including lay practitioners.

(Eighth century). A great master of the Mādhyamika, famous for his remarkable work, “Introduction to the Practice of Enlightenment” (Bodhi­caryāvatāra).

One of the major śrāvaka disciples, paired with Maudgalyāyana, and noted for having been praised by the Buddha as foremost of the wise; hence, the most frequent target for Vimalakīrti’s attacks on the śrāvakas and on the Hinayāna in general.

(See also n.40)

One of the buddhas who appear in Vimalakīrti’s house to teach the Tathāgata­guhyaka, according to the goddess.

Universe of the Buddha Gandhottama­kūṭa; a universe wherein the Dharma is taught through the medium of scent. According to Lamotte, p. 319, n. 2, this universe is mentioned in the Śikṣāsamuccaya, the Laṇkāvatāra, and the Prasannapadā. However, In the Prasannapadā, this universe is said to be ruled by Samantabhadra, not Gandhottama­kūṭa (see Lamotte, p. 320, n. 3).

This bodhisattva asks Vimalakīrti the whereabouts of his family, etc., thus prompting the latter’s extraordinary verses on the family and accoutrements of all bodhisattvas (Chap. 8).

A universe, or buddhafield, where the bodhisattvas live in a constant state of bliss. The Skt. of the Potala MS has Sarva­sukha­pratimaṇḍita, that of the excerpt cited in the Śikṣāsamuccaya has Sarvasukhamaṇḍitā.

Haribhadra defines it as “a place used as a seat, where the maṇḍa, here ‘essence,’ of enlightenment is present.” See Lamotte, p. 198, n. 105. The main “seat of enlightenment” is the spot under the bo tree at Buddha Gaya, where the Buddha sat and attained unexcelled, perfect enlightenment. It is not to be confused with bodhimaṇḍala, “circle of enlightenment.”

It is crucial to understand what is meant by “self,” before one is able to realize the all-important “absence of self.” Before we can discover an absence, we have to know what we are looking for. In Mahāyāna, there is a self of persons and a self of things, both presumed habitually by living beings and hence informative of their perceptions. Were these “selves” to exist as they appear because of our presumption, they should exist as substantial, self-subsistent entities within things, or as the intrinsic realities of things, or as the intrinsic identities of things, all permanent, unrelated and unrelative, etc. The nondiscovery of such “selves” within changing, relative, interdependent persons and things is the realization of ultimate reality, or absence of self.

Lit. “The tight fist of the [bad] teacher.”

see “aggregates”

The twelve sense-media are eye-medium (cakṣurāyatana), form-medium (rūpa-), ear-medium (śrotra-), sound-medium (śabda-), nose-medium (ghrāna-), scent-medium (gandha-), tongue-medium (jihvā-), taste-medium (rasa-), body-medium (kāya-), texture-medium (spraṣṭavya), mental-medium (mana-), and phenomena-medium (dharmāyatana). In some passages they are enumerated as six, the object-faculty pair being taken as one, and it is this set of six that is the fifth member of the twelve links of dependent origination. The word āyatana is usually translated as “base,” but the Skt., Tib., and Ch. all indicate “something through which the senses function” rather than a basis from which they function; hence “medium” is suggested.

This refers to the seven categories of living beings, as enumerated in the Abhi­dharma­kośa, III, v. 5-6a. The seven abodes of consciousness consist of beings who differ physically and intellectually; beings who differ physically but are similar intellectually; beings similar physically but who differ intellectually; beings similar physically and intellectually; and three types of immaterial beings (nānātvakāya­saṃjñāś ca nānākāyaika­saṃjñinaḥ / viparyayāc caikakāya­saṃjñāś cārūpiṇas trayaḥ // vijñāna­sthitayaḥ sapta…). According to Vasubandhu the first category consists of men, the six types of gods of the desire-realm, and the gods of the first realm of contemplation (brahma­vihāra) except those fallen from higher realms (prathamābhinivṛta); the second category consists of those fallen (prathamābhiniṛvṛta) gods who have different bodies but whose intellects are single-mindedly aware of the idea of being created by Brahmā; the third category consists of the gods of the second realm of contemplation‍—the abhāsvara (clear-light) gods, the parīṭṭābha (radiant) gods, and the apramāṇābha (immeasurably luminous) gods‍—who have similar luminous bodies but differ in their thoughts, which are bent on the experiences of pleasure and numbness; the fourth category consists of the śubhakṛtsna (pure-wholeness) gods, whose intellects are united in concentration on bliss; the fifth category consists of the immaterial beings who reside in the realm of infinite space; the sixth category consists of the immaterial beings who reside in the realm of infinite consciousness; and the seventh category consists of the immaterial beings who reside in the realm of nothingness. (See also Mvy, Nos. 2289-2295.)

These are the factors of remembrance (smṛti), discrimination between teachings (dharma­pravicaya), effort (vīrya), joy (prīti), ecstasy (praśrabdhi), concentration (samādhi), and equanimity (upekṣā). These seven form a part of the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment.

In ultimate reality, there is no sign, as a sign signals or signifies something to someone and hence is inextricably involved with the relative world. We are so conditioned by signs that they seem to speak to us as if they had a voice of their own. The letter “A” seems to pronounce itself to us as we see it, and the stop-sign fairly shouts at us. However, the configuration of two slanted lines with a crossbar has in itself nothing whatsoever to do with the phenomenon made with the mouth and throat in the open position, when expulsion of breath makes the vocal cords resonate “ah.” By extending such analysis to all signs, we may get an inkling of what is meant by “signlessness,” which is essentially equivalent to voidness, and to “wishlessness” (see entry). Voidness, signlessness, and wishlessness form the “Three Doors of Liberation.”

The Brahmā of the universe Aśoka, who is personally called Śikhin to distinguish him from Brahmās of other universes (see Brahmā). The second of the “seven buddhas of the past” is also called Śikhin but his name is rendered in Tibetan as gtsug gtor can.

The “Compendium of Precepts,” in which Śāntideva collects pertinent quotes from the Mahāyāna sūtras and presents them according to a pattern suited for systematic practice. The quotations he included from the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa were the only extant remnants of the original Sanskrit of the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa until the discovery of a Sanskrit text in the Potala Palace in 2002.

One of the buddhas who teach the Tathāgata­guhyaka on certain occasions in Vimalakīrti’s house.

One of the buddhas who teach the Tathāgata­guhyaka on certain occasions in Vimalakīrti’s house.

These six teachers of nihilism, sophism, determinism, asceticism, etc. sought to rival the Buddha in his day: Purāna Kāśyapa, who negated the effects of action, good or evil; Māskārin Gośāli­putra, who taught a theory of randomness, negating causality; Saṃjāyin Vairaṭi­putra, who was agnostic in refusing to maintain any opinion about anything; Kakuda Kātyāyana, who taught a materialism in which there was no such thing as killer or killed, but only transformations of elements; Ajita Keśakambala, who taught a more extreme nihilism regarding everything except the four main elements; and Nirgrantha Jñāti­putra, otherwise known as Mahāvīra, the founder of Jainism, who taught the doctrine of indeterminism (syādvāda), considering all things in terms of “maybe.” They were allowed to proclaim their doctrines unchallenged until a famous assembly at Śrāvastī, where the Buddha eclipsed them with a display of miracles and teachings.

These are six things to keep in mind: the Buddha, the Dharma, the Saṅgha, morality (śīla), generosity (tyāga), and deities (devatā).

These are enumerated in the Brahmājāla­sūtra and in the Dighanikāya and consist of all views other than the “right view” of the absence of self. All sixty-two fall into either one of the two categories known as the “two extremisms:” “eternalism” (sāśvatavāda) and “nihilism” (ucchedavāda).

“Spirit” is preferred to “mind” because the mind of enlightenment should rather be the mind of the Buddha, and to “thought” because a “thought of enlightenment” can easily be produced without the initiation of any sort of new resolve or awareness. “Will” also serves very well here.

A Mahāyāna teacher is termed “friend,” or “benefactor,” which indicates that a bodhisattva-career depends on one’s own effort and that all a teacher can do is inspire, exemplify, and point the way.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

The vehicle comprising the teaching of the śrāvakas.

Capital city of the kingdom of Kosala, ruled by one of the Buddha’s royal patrons, king Prasenajit, where the Buddha often dwelt in the Jetavana grove, site of many Mahāyāna sūtras.

(c. fourth century). One of the important masters of the Vijñānavāda school, he wrote important commentaries on the works of Vasubandhu and Āryāsaṅga.

The two great stores to be accumulated by bodhisattvas: the store of merit, arising from their practice of the first three transcendences, and the store of wisdom, arising from their practice of the last two transcendences. All deeds of bodhisattvas contribute to their accumulation of these two stores, which ultimately culminate in the two bodies of the Buddha, the body of form and the ultimate body.

This is equivalent to vāsanā, “instinctual predilection,” and refers in Buddhist psychology to the subconscious habit patterns that underlie emotional responses such as desire and hatred.

Identifiable with ālayavijñāna. However, as reference to the elaborate Vijñānavādin psychology of the “store-consciousness” is out of place in this sūtra, it is here simply translated “subconsciousness.”

A supreme god, or Brahmā, of another universe, who visits our universe to converse with Aniruddha about the divine eye, and is taught instead by Vimalakīrti in Chap. 3.

Disciple noted for his profound concentration on voidness; as interlocutor of the Buddha, a major figure in the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtras. See also n.65.

Sudatta was a great lay patron of the Buddha and philanthropist of Śrāvastī, and is more commonly called Anāthapiṇḍada (mgon med zas sbyin); he known as “the foremost of donors” (Pāli; aggo dāyakānaṃ).

One of the standard epithets of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas. According to Buddhaghoṣa, the term means that the way the Buddha went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su), and where he went (gata) is good (su).

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

Special powers of which five, acquired through the meditative contemplations (dhyāna), are considered mundane (laukika) and can be attained to some extent by outsider yogis as well as Buddhist arhats and bodhisattvas; and a sixth‍—being acquired through a bodhisattva’s realization, or by buddhas alone according to some accounts‍—is supramundane (lokottara). The first five are: divine eye or vision (divyacakṣu), divine hearing (divyaśrotra), knowledge of others’ minds (paracittajñāna), knowledge of former (and future) lives (pūrva­[para]­nivāsānu­smṛti­jñāna), and knowledge of magical operations (ṛddhi­vidhi­jñāna). The sixth, supramundane one is knowledge of the exhaustion of defilements (āsravakṣaya­jñāna).

In general Indian usage, the word for a highly condensed arrangement of verses that lends itself to memorization, serving as a basic text for a particular school of thought. In Buddhism, a scripture, in as much as it records either the direct speech of the Buddha, or the speech of someone manifestly inspired by him.

Meaning “method” in general, in Buddhism it refers to an important body of literature dealing with a great variety of techniques of advanced meditations, incorporating rituals, incantations, and visualisations, that are stamped as esoteric until a practitioner has already attained a certain stage of ethical and philosophical development.

The “Blaze of Reason,” an important treatise of Bhāvaviveka’s, in which he critically discusses all the major philosophical views of his day.

Lit. “Thus-gone” or “Thus-come,” (one who proceeds always in consciousness of the ultimate reality, or thatness of all things). A name of the Buddha.

There are two different sets of ten powers, those of the Buddha and those of bodhisattvas. Those of the Buddha consist of power from knowing right from wrong (sthānāsthāna­jñāna­bala); power from knowing the consequences of actions (karma­vipāka­jñāna-); power from knowing the various inclinations (of living beings) (nānādhimukti­jñāna-); power from knowing the various types (of living beings) (nānādhātujñāna-); power from knowing the degree of the capacities (of living beings) (indriya­varāvara­jñāna-); power from knowing the path that leads everywhere (sarva­tragāmīmpratipat­jñāna-); power from knowing the obscuration, affliction, and purification of all contemplations, meditations, liberations, concentrations, and absorptions (sarva­dhyāna­vimokṣa­samādhi­samāpatti­saṃkleśa­vyavadāna­vyutthāna­jñāna-); power from knowing his own former lives (pūrva­nivāsānu­smṛti­jñāna-); power from knowing deaths and future lives (cyutyutpatti­jñāna-); and power from knowing the exhaustion of defilements (āsravakṣaya­jñāna-). The latter set consists of the bodhisattva’s power of positive thought (āśayabala); power of high resolve (adhyāśaya-); power of application (prayoga-); power of wisdom (prajña-); power of prayer (praṇidhāna-); power of vehicle (yāna-); power of activities (caryā-); power of emanations (vikurvaṇa-); power of enlightenment (bodhi-); and power of turning the wheel of the Dharma (dharma­cakra­pravartaṇa-).

These are the opposite of the ten virtues, and consist of killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, harsh speech, backbiting, frivolous speech, covetousness, malice, and false views.

These are the opposite of the ten sins, i.e., refraining from engaging in activities related to the ten sins and doing the opposite. There are three physical virtues: saving lives, giving, and sexual propriety. There are four verbal virtues: truthfulness, reconciling discussions, gentle speech, and religious speech. There are three mental virtues: loving attitude, generous attitude, and right views. The whole doctrine is collectively called the “tenfold path of good action” (daśa­kuśala­karma­patha).

These consist of the four foci of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of magical powers, the five spiritual faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the eightfold noble path.

The three worlds or realms of which all universes are composed: of desire (kāmadhātu), of pure matter (rūpadhātu), and the immaterial realm (ārūpyadhātu).

Here we are concerned with the “intuitive tolerance of the birthlessness (or incomprehensibility) of all things” (anutpattika­dharma­kṣānti or anupalabdhi­dharma­kṣānti). To translate kṣānti as “knowledge” or “conviction” defeats entirely the Skt. usage and its intended sense: In the face of birthlessness or incomprehensibility (i.e., the ultimate reality), ordinary knowledge and especially convictions are utterly lost; this is because the mind loses objectifiability of anything and has nothing to grasp, and its process of coming to terms may be described only as a conscious cancellation through absolute negations of any false sense of certainty about anything. Through this tolerance, the mind reaches a stage where it can bear its lack of bearings, as it were, can endure this kind of extreme openness, this lack of any conviction, etc. There are three degrees of this tolerance‍—verbal (ghoṣānugā), conforming (anulomikī), and complete. See Introduction, i.9, and Lamotte, Appendice, Note III.

This is paired with “mental quiescence” (see entry). In general “meditation” is too often understood as only the types of practices categorized as “quietistic”‍—which eschew objects, learning, analysis, discrimination, etc., and lead only to the attainment of temporary peace and one-pointedness. However, in order to reach any high realization, such as the absence of a personal self, the absence of a self in phenomena, or voidness, “transcendental analysis,” with its analytical penetration to the nature of ultimate reality, is indispensable. The analysis is called “transcendental” because it does not accept anything it sees as it appears. Instead, through analytic examination, it penetrates to its deeper reality, going ever deeper in infinite penetration until tolerance is reached. All apparently self-sufficient objects are seen through and their truth-status is rejected‍—first conceptually and finally perceptually, at buddhahood. Thus “meditation,” to be efficacious, must include both mental quiescence (śamatha), and transcendental analysis (vipaśyana) in integrated combination.

Transcendental practice, as opposed to practice at an earlier stage.

The Heaven of the “Thirty-Three,” second level of the desire-realm, located on top of Mount Sumeru in the Buddhist cosmology.

(1357-1419). One of the greatest of all Tibetan Lamas, his saintliness was evidenced in his altruistic deeds that caused a renaissance in Tibet, his enlightenment in the extraordinary subtlety and profundity of his thought, and his scholarship in the breadth and clarity of his voluminous writings.

A heaven, the fourth level of the heavens of the realm of desire, and the last stopping place of a buddha before his descent and reincarnation on earth; at present the abode of the future Buddha Maitreya.

These consist of (1) wearing rags (pāṃśukūlika, phyag dar khrod pa), (2) (in the form of only) three religious robes (traicīvarika, chos gos gsum), (3) (coarse in texture as) garments of felt (nāma[n]tika, ’phyings pa pa), (4) eating by alms (paiṇḍapātika, bsod snyoms pa), (5) having a single mat to sit on (aikāsanika, stan gcig pa), (6) not eating after noon (khalu paścād bhaktika, zas phyis mi len pa), (7) living alone in the forest (āraṇyaka, dgon pa pa), (8) living at the base of a tree (vṛkṣamūlika, shing drungs pa), (9) living in the open (not under a roof) (ābhyavakāśika, bla gab med pa), (10) frequenting burning grounds (Indian equivalent of cemeteries) (śmāśānika, dur khrod pa), (11) sleeping sitting up (in meditative posture) (naiṣadika, cog bu pa), and (12) accepting whatever seating position is offered (yāthāsaṃstarika, gzhi ji bzhin pa). Mahāvyutpatti, 1127-39.

“Ultimate” is preferable to the usual “absolute” because it carries fewer connotations than “absolute”‍—which, however, when understood logically, is also correct. It is contrasted with “superficial” (vyavahāra) or “relative” (samvṛtti) to give the two types, or “levels.,” of truth. It is synonymous with ultimate reality, the uncompounded, voidness, reality, limit of reality, absolute, nirvāṇa, ultimate liberation, infinity, permanence, eternity, independence, etc. It also has the soteriological sense of “sacred” as opposed to “profane” as is conveyed by its literal rendering “supreme” (parama) “object” (artha).